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From Artificial Evolution to Artificial Life
  
  Timothy John Taylor
1999

Abstract
This work addresses the question: What are the basic design considerations for creating a synthetic model of the evolution of living systems (i.e. an ’artificial life’ system)? It can also be viewed as an attempt to elucidate the logical structure (in a very general sense) of biological evolution. However, with no adequate definition of life, the experimental portion of the work concentrates on more specific issues, and primarily on the issue of open-ended evolution. An artificial evolutionary system called Cosmos, which provides a virtual operating system capable of simulating the parallel processing and evolution of a population of several thousand self-reproducing computer programs, is introduced. Cosmos is related to Ray’s established Tierra system, but there are a number of significant differences. A wide variety of experiments with Cosmos, which were designed to investigate its evolutionary dynamics, are reported. An analysis of the results is presented, with particular attention given to the role of contingency in determining the outcome of the runs. The results of this work, and consideration of the existing literature on artificial evolutionary systems, leads to the conclusion that artificial life models such as this are lacking on a number of theoretical and methodological grounds. It is emphasised that explicit theoretical considerations should guide the design of such models, if they are to be of scientific value. An analysis of various issues relating to self-reproduction, especially in the context of evolution, is presented, including some extensions to von Neumann’s analysis of self-reproduction. This suggests ways in which the evolutionary potential of such models might be improved. In particular, a shift of focus is recommended towards a more careful consideration of the phenotypic capabilities of the reproducing individuals. Phenotypic capabilities fundamentally involve interactions with the environment (both abiotic and biotic), and it is further argued that the theoretical grounding upon which these models should be based must include consideration of the kind of environments and the kind of interactions required for open-ended evolution. A number of useful future research directions are identified. Finally, the relevance of such work to the original goal of modelling the evolution of living systems (as opposed to the more general goal of modelling open-ended evolution) is discussed. It is suggested that the study of open-ended evolution can lead us to a better understanding of the essential properties of life, but only if the questions being asked in these studies are phrased appropriately.

 
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Reference
<span id="taylor1999artificial">Taylor, T. J. (1999). <i>From Artificial Evolution to Artificial Life</i> (PhD thesis). School of Informatics, College of Science and Engineering, University of Edinburgh.</span>

BibTeX
@phdthesis{taylor1999artificial,
  author = {Taylor, Timothy John},
  title = {From Artificial Evolution to Artificial Life},
  school = {School of Informatics, College of Science and Engineering, University of Edinburgh},
  year = {1999},
  uri = {http://hdl.handle.net/1842/361},
  category = {dissertation},
  keywords = {selfrep, oee, cosmos}
}

   
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  title = {An Afterword to "Rise of the Self-Replicators": Placing John A. Etzler, Frigyes Karinthy, Fred Stahl, and Others in the Early History of Thought About Self-Reproducing Machines},
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  issn = {1530-9185},
  category = {journal},
  keywords = {history, selfrep}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor2021evolutionary">Taylor, T. (2021). <b>Evolutionary Innovation Viewed as Novel Physical Phenomena and Hierarchical Systems Building</b>. <i>Presented at the Fourth Workshop on Open-Ended Evolution (OEE4) at the 2021 Conference on Artificial Life (ALIFE 2021)</i>. Retrieved from https://arxiv.org/abs/2107.09669</span></div>

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    <pre>@article{taylor2021evolutionary,
  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  title = {Evolutionary Innovation Viewed as Novel Physical Phenomena and Hierarchical Systems Building},
  journal = {Presented at the Fourth Workshop on Open-Ended Evolution (OEE4) at the 2021 Conference on Artificial Life (ALIFE 2021)},
  year = {2021},
  month = jul,
  url = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2107.09669},
  category = {workshop},
  keywords = {oee}
}
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  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  title = {The Importance of Open-Endedness (For the Sake of Open-Endedness)},
  booktitle = {ALIFE 2020: Proceedings of the Artificial Life Conference 2020},
  editor = {Bongard, Josh and Lovato, Juniper and Hebert-Dufrésne, Laurent and Dasari, Radhakrishna and Soros, Lisa},
  year = {2020},
  publisher = {{MIT} Press},
  pages = {578-580},
  doi = {10.1162/isal_a_00257},
  category = {conference},
  keywords = {oee}
}
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    <pre>@incollection{taylor2020what,
  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  title = {What Am I For? Self-Purpose and Self-Reproduction in Rossum's Universal Robots (Samoúčelnost a samoreprodukce u Rossumových univerzálních robotů)},
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  isbn = {978-80-7592-062-1},
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  address = {Prague},
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  note = {Centenary edition of Karel \v{C}apek's Rossum's Universal Robots. In Czech.}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor2020rise">Taylor, T., &amp; Dorin, A. (2020). <i><b>Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve</b></i>. Cham: Springer.</span></div>

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    <pre>@book{taylor2020rise,
  title = {Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve},
  author = {Taylor, Tim and Dorin, Alan},
  publisher = {Springer},
  year = {2020},
  isbn = {978-3-030-48233-6},
  address = {Cham},
  category = {book},
  keywords = {history, selfrep}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor2019evolutionary">Taylor, T. (2019). <b>Evolutionary Innovations and Where to Find Them: Routes to Open-Ended Evolution in Natural and Artificial Systems</b>. <i>Artificial Life</i>, <i>25</i>(2), 207–224. https://doi.org/10.1162/artl_a_00290</span></div>

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  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  title = {Evolutionary Innovations and Where to Find Them: Routes to Open-Ended Evolution in Natural and Artificial Systems},
  journal = {Artificial Life},
  year = {2019},
  volume = {25},
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="packard2019overview">Packard, N., Bedau, M., Channon, A., Ikegami, T., Rasmussen, S., Stanley, K., &amp; Taylor, T. (2019). <b>An Overview of Open-Ended Evolution: Editorial Introduction to the Open-Ended Evolution II Special Issue</b>. <i>Artificial Life</i>, <i>25</i>(2), 93–103. https://doi.org/10.1162/artl_a_00291</span></div>

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    <pre>@article{packard2019overview,
  author = {Packard, Norman and Bedau, Mark and Channon, Alastair and Ikegami, Takashi and Rasmussen, Steen and Stanley, Kenneth and Taylor, Tim},
  title = {An Overview of Open-Ended Evolution: Editorial Introduction to the Open-Ended Evolution II Special Issue},
  journal = {Artificial Life},
  year = {2019},
  volume = {25},
  number = {2},
  pages = {93--103},
  publisher = {{MIT} Press Journals},
  doi = {10.1162/artl_a_00291},
  issn = {1064-5462},
  category = {journal},
  keywords = {oee}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="packard2019openended">Packard, N., Bedau, M., Channon, A., Ikegami, T., Rasmussen, S., Stanley, K., &amp; Taylor, T. (2019). <b>Open-Ended Evolution and Open-Endedness: Editorial Introduction to the Open-Ended Evolution I Special Issue</b>. <i>Artificial Life</i>, <i>25</i>(1), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1162/artl_e_00282</span></div>

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    <pre>@article{packard2019openended,
  author = {Packard, Norman and Bedau, Mark and Channon, Alastair and Ikegami, Takashi and Rasmussen, Steen and Stanley, Kenneth and Taylor, Tim},
  title = {Open-Ended Evolution and Open-Endedness: Editorial Introduction to the Open-Ended Evolution I Special Issue},
  journal = {Artificial Life},
  year = {2019},
  volume = {25},
  number = {1},
  pages = {1--3},
  publisher = {{MIT} Press Journals},
  doi = {10.1162/artl_e_00282},
  issn = {1064-5462},
  category = {journal},
  keywords = {oee}
}
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    <pre>@inproceedings{taylor2018past,
  author = {Taylor, Tim and Dorin, Alan},
  title = {Past Visions of Artificial Futures: One Hundred and Fifty Years under the Spectre of Evolving Machines},
  booktitle = {ALIFE 2018: Proceedings of the Artificial Life Conference 2018},
  editor = {Ikegami, Takashi and Virgo, Nathaniel and Witkowski, Olaf and Oka, Mizuki and Suzuki, Reiji and Iizuka, Hiroyuki},
  year = {2018},
  publisher = {{MIT} Press},
  pages = {91--98},
  doi = {10.1162/isal_a_00022},
  category = {conference},
  keywords = {history, selfrep}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor2018routes">Taylor, T. (2018). <b>Routes to Open-Endedness in Evolutionary Systems</b>. <i>Presented at the Third Workshop on Open-Ended Evolution (OEE3) at the 2018 Conference on Artificial Life (ALIFE 2018)</i>. Retrieved from https://arxiv.org/abs/1806.01883v3</span></div>

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    <pre>@article{taylor2018routes,
  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  title = {Routes to Open-Endedness in Evolutionary Systems},
  journal = {Presented at the Third Workshop on Open-Ended Evolution (OEE3) at the 2018 Conference on Artificial Life (ALIFE 2018)},
  year = {2018},
  month = jul,
  url = {https://arxiv.org/abs/1806.01883v3},
  category = {workshop},
  keywords = {oee}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor2016openended">Taylor, T., Bedau, M., Channon, A., Ackley, D., Banzhaf, W., Beslon, G., … Wiser, M. (2016). <b>Open-Ended Evolution: Perspectives from the OEE Workshop in York</b>. <i>Artificial Life</i>, <i>22</i>(3), 408–423. https://doi.org/10.1162/artl_a_00210</span></div>

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    <pre>@article{taylor2016openended,
  author = {Taylor, Tim and Bedau, Mark and Channon, Alastair and Ackley, David and Banzhaf, Wolfgang and Beslon, Guillaume and Dolson, Emily and Froese, Tom and Hickinbotham, Simon and Ikegami, Takashi and McMullin, Barry and Packard, Norman and Rasmussen, Steen and Virgo, Nathaniel and Agmon, Eran and Clark, Edward and McGregor, Simon and Ofria, Charles and Ropella, Glen and Spector, Lee and Stanley, Kenneth O. and Stanton, Adam and Timperley, Christopher and Vostinar, Anya and Wiser, Michael},
  title = {Open-Ended Evolution: Perspectives from the {OEE} Workshop in {Y}ork},
  journal = {Artificial Life},
  year = {2016},
  publisher = {{MIT} Press Journals},
  volume = {22},
  number = {3},
  pages = {408--423},
  doi = {10.1162/artl_a_00210},
  category = {journal},
  keywords = {oee}
}
</pre>
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor2015requirements">Taylor, T. (2015). <b>Requirements for Open-Ended Evolution in Natural and Artificial Systems</b>. <i>Presented at the EvoEvo Workshop at the European Conference on Artificial Life 2015 (ECAL 2015)</i>. Retrieved from https://arxiv.org/abs/1507.07403</span></div>

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    <pre>@article{taylor2015requirements,
  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  title = {Requirements for Open-Ended Evolution in Natural and Artificial Systems},
  journal = {Presented at the EvoEvo Workshop at the European Conference on Artificial Life 2015 (ECAL 2015)},
  year = {2015},
  month = jul,
  url = {https://arxiv.org/abs/1507.07403},
  category = {workshop},
  keywords = {oee}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor2014evolution">Taylor, T. (2014). <b>Evolution in virtual worlds</b>. In M. Grimshaw (Ed.), <i>The Oxford Handbook of Virtuality</i> (pp. 526–548). https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199826162.013.044</span></div>

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    <pre>@inbook{taylor2014evolution,
  title = {Evolution in virtual worlds},
  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  year = {2014},
  doi = {10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199826162.013.044},
  language = {English},
  isbn = {9780199826162},
  pages = {526--548},
  editor = {Grimshaw, Mark},
  booktitle = {The Oxford Handbook of Virtuality},
  publisher = {Oxford University Press},
  address = {United Kingdom},
  category = {chapter},
  keywords = {oee}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor2012exploring">Taylor, T. (2012). <b>Exploring the Concept of Open-Ended Evolution</b>. In C. Adami, D. M. Bryson, C. Ofria, &amp; R. T. Pennock (Eds.), <i>Artificial Life 13: Proceedings of the Thirteenth International Conference on the Simulation and Synthesis of Living Systems</i> (pp. 540–541). MIT Press.</span></div>

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    <pre>@inproceedings{taylor2012exploring,
  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  title = {Exploring the Concept of Open-Ended Evolution},
  booktitle = {Artificial Life 13: Proceedings of the Thirteenth International Conference on the Simulation and Synthesis of Living Systems},
  year = {2012},
  editor = {Adami, Christoph and Bryson, David M. and Ofria, Charles and Pennock, Robert T.},
  pages = {540--541},
  publisher = {{MIT} Press},
  category = {conference},
  keywords = {oee}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor2004redrawing">Taylor, T. (2004). <b>Redrawing the Boundary between Organism and Environment</b>. In J. Pollack, M. A. Bedau, P. Husbands, R. A. Watson, &amp; T. Ikegami (Eds.), <i>Artificial Life IX: Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on the Simulation and Synthesis of Living Systems</i> (pp. 268–273). https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/1429.003.0045</span></div>

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    <pre>@inproceedings{taylor2004redrawing,
  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  title = {Redrawing the Boundary between Organism and Environment},
  booktitle = {Artificial Life IX: Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on the Simulation and Synthesis of Living Systems},
  year = {2004},
  editor = {Pollack, Jordan and Bedau, Mark A. and Husbands, Phil and Watson, Richard A. and Ikegami, Takashi},
  pages = {268-273},
  address = {Cambridge, MA},
  publisher = {{MIT} Press},
  doi = {10.7551/mitpress/1429.003.0045},
  category = {conference},
  keywords = {evoca, oee, meaning, agency}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor2003evolving">Taylor, T. (2003). <b>Evolving Interaction in Artificial Systems: An historical overview and future directions</b>. In P. McOwan, K. Dautenhahn, &amp; C. L. Nehaniv (Eds.), <i>Abstracts from the Evolvability and Interaction Symposium, held at Queen Mary, University of London, UK, in October 2003</i>. University of Hertfordshire Computer Science Technical Report No. 393.</span></div>

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    <pre>@incollection{taylor2003evolving,
  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  title = {Evolving Interaction in Artificial Systems: An historical overview and future directions},
  booktitle = {Abstracts from the Evolvability and Interaction Symposium, held at Queen Mary, University of London, UK, in October 2003},
  publisher = {University of Hertfordshire Computer Science Technical Report No.~393},
  year = {2003},
  month = oct,
  editor = {McOwan, Peter and Dautenhahn, Kerstin and Nehaniv, Chrystopher L.},
  category = {workshop},
  keywords = {evoca, history, oee}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor2001creativity">Taylor, T. (2001). <b>Creativity in Evolution: Individuals, Interactions and Environments</b>. In P. J. Bentley &amp; D. W. Corne (Eds.), <i>Creative Evolutionary Systems</i> (pp. 79–108). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-155860673-9/50037-9</span></div>

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    <pre>@incollection{taylor2001creativity,
  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  title = {Creativity in Evolution: Individuals, Interactions and Environments},
  booktitle = {Creative Evolutionary Systems},
  editor = {Bentley, Peter J and Corne, David W},
  chapter = {1},
  pages = {79--108},
  publisher = {Morgan Kaufmann},
  year = {2001},
  doi = {10.1016/b978-155860673-9/50037-9},
  category = {chapter},
  keywords = {creativity, oee}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="mcmullin2001who">McMullin, B., Taylor, T., &amp; von Kamp, A. (2001). <b>Who Needs Genomes?</b> <i>Proceedings of the Atlantic Symposium on Computational Biology and Genome Information Systems and Technology, CBGIST 2001</i>, 250–254. Duke University, USA.</span></div>

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    <pre>@inproceedings{mcmullin2001who,
  author = {McMullin, Barry and Taylor, Tim and {von Kamp}, Axel},
  title = {Who Needs Genomes?},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the Atlantic Symposium on Computational Biology and Genome Information Systems and Technology, CBGIST 2001},
  year = {2001},
  pages = {250-254},
  month = mar,
  address = {Duke University, USA},
  category = {conference},
  keywords = {selfrep}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor2000some">Taylor, T. (2000). <b>Some Representational and Ecological Aspects of Evolvability</b>. In C. L. Nehaniv (Ed.), <i>Proceedings of the Evolvability Workshop at the the Seventh International Conference on the Simulation and Synthesis of Living Systems (Artificial Life 7)</i> (pp. 41–44). Retrieved from http://homepages.herts.ac.uk/ comqcln/al7ev/cnts.html</span></div>

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    <pre>@inproceedings{taylor2000some,
  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  title = {Some Representational and Ecological Aspects of Evolvability},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the Evolvability Workshop at the the Seventh International Conference on the Simulation and Synthesis of Living Systems (Artificial Life 7)},
  year = {2000},
  editor = {Nehaniv, Chrystopher L.},
  pages = {41-44},
  url = {http://homepages.herts.ac.uk/~comqcln/al7ev/cnts.html},
  month = aug,
  category = {workshop},
  keywords = {selfrep, oee}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor1999selfreproduction">Taylor, T. (1999). <b>On Self-Reproduction and Evolvability</b>. In D. Floreano, J.-D. Nicoud, &amp; F. Mondada (Eds.), <i>Advances in Artificial Life. ECAL 1999</i> (pp. 94–103). https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-48304-7_15</span></div>

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    <pre>@inproceedings{taylor1999selfreproduction,
  title = {On Self-Reproduction and Evolvability},
  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  year = {1999},
  booktitle = {Advances in Artificial Life. ECAL 1999},
  series = {Lecture Notes in Computer Science},
  volume = {1674},
  pages = {94-103},
  editor = {Floreano, Dario and Nicoud, Jean-Daniel and Mondada, Francesco},
  doi = {10.1007/3-540-48304-7_15},
  publisher = {Springer},
  address = {Berlin},
  category = {conference},
  keywords = {selfrep, cosmos}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor1999creativity">Taylor, T. (1999). <b>Creativity in Evolution: Individuals, Interactions and Environments</b>. In P. J. Bentley &amp; D. W. Corne (Eds.), <i>Proceedings of the AISB’99 Symposium on Creative Evolutionary Systems</i> (pp. 8–17). The Society for the Study of Artificial Intelligence and Simulation of Behaviour.</span></div>

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    <pre>@inproceedings{taylor1999creativity,
  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  title = {Creativity in Evolution: Individuals, Interactions and Environments},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the AISB'99 Symposium on Creative Evolutionary Systems},
  year = {1999},
  editor = {Bentley, Peter J. and Corne, David W.},
  pages = {8-17},
  publisher = {The Society for the Study of Artificial Intelligence and Simulation of Behaviour},
  isbn = {1902956036},
  category = {conference},
  keywords = {creativity, cosmos}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor1998replaying">Taylor, T., &amp; Hallam, J. (1998). <b>Replaying the Tape: An Investigation into the Role of Contingency in Evolution</b>. In C. Adami, R. K. Belew, H. Kitano, &amp; C. E. Taylor (Eds.), <i>Artificial Life VI: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Artificial Life</i> (pp. 256–265). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</span></div>

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    <pre>@inproceedings{taylor1998replaying,
  title = {Replaying the Tape: An Investigation into the Role of Contingency in Evolution},
  author = {Taylor, Tim and Hallam, John},
  pages = {256-265},
  booktitle = {Artificial Life VI: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Artificial Life},
  editor = {Adami, Christoph and Belew, Richard K. and Kitano, Hiroaki and Taylor, Charles E.},
  publisher = {MIT Press},
  address = {Cambridge, MA},
  year = {1998},
  category = {conference},
  keywords = {cosmos}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor1998nidus">Taylor, T. (1998). <i><b>Nidus Design Document</b></i> (Departmental Working Paper No. 269). Department of Artificial Intelligence, University of Edinburgh.</span></div>

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    <pre>@techreport{taylor1998nidus,
  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  title = {Nidus Design Document},
  institution = {Department of Artificial Intelligence, University of Edinburgh},
  year = {1998},
  type = {Departmental Working Paper},
  number = {269},
  month = jun,
  category = {techreport},
  keywords = {oee}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor1997studying">Taylor, T., &amp; Hallam, J. (1997). <b>Studying Evolution with Self-Replicating Computer Programs</b>. In P. Husbands &amp; I. Harvey (Eds.), <i>Fourth European Conference on Artificial Life</i> (pp. 550–559). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</span></div>

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    <pre>@inproceedings{taylor1997studying,
  title = {Studying Evolution with Self-Replicating Computer Programs},
  author = {Taylor, Tim and Hallam, John},
  pages = {550--559},
  booktitle = {Fourth European Conference on Artificial Life},
  editor = {Husbands, Phil and Harvey, Inman},
  publisher = {MIT Press},
  address = {Cambridge, MA},
  isbn = {0262581574},
  year = {1997},
  category = {conference},
  keywords = {cosmos, selfrep}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor1997cosmos">Taylor, T. (1997). <i><b>The COSMOS Artificial Life System</b></i> (Departmental Working Paper No. 263). Department of Artificial Intelligence, University of Edinburgh.</span></div>

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    <pre>@techreport{taylor1997cosmos,
  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  title = {The COSMOS Artificial Life System},
  institution = {Department of Artificial Intelligence, University of Edinburgh},
  year = {1997},
  type = {Departmental Working Paper},
  number = {263},
  month = oct,
  category = {techreport},
  keywords = {cosmos},
  note = {Version 2.0: May 1999}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor1996study">Taylor, T. (1996). <i><b>PhD Proposal: A Study of Evolution in Self-Replicating Parallel Computer Programs</b></i> (Departmental Discussion Paper No. 169). Department of Artificial Intelligence, University of Edinburgh.</span></div>

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    <pre>@techreport{taylor1996study,
  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  title = {PhD Proposal: A Study of Evolution in Self-Replicating Parallel Computer Programs},
  institution = {Department of Artificial Intelligence, University of Edinburgh},
  year = {1996},
  type = {Departmental Discussion Paper},
  number = {169},
  month = jun,
  category = {techreport},
  keywords = {cosmos}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor1996cosmos">Taylor, T. (1996). <i><b>The COSMOS Environment and REPLiCa Programming Language</b></i> (Departmental Working Paper No. 259). Department of Artificial Intelligence, University of Edinburgh.</span></div>

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    <pre>@techreport{taylor1996cosmos,
  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  title = {The COSMOS Environment and REPLiCa Programming Language},
  institution = {Department of Artificial Intelligence, University of Edinburgh},
  year = {1996},
  type = {Departmental Working Paper},
  number = {259},
  month = jun,
  category = {techreport},
  keywords = {cosmos}
}
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<div class="overflow-scroll"><span id="taylor1996incorporation">Taylor, T. (1996). <i><b>On the Incorporation of a Developmental Process in a System of Self-Replicating Programs</b></i> (Departmental Working Paper No. 258). Department of Artificial Intelligence, University of Edinburgh.</span></div>

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    <pre>@techreport{taylor1996incorporation,
  author = {Taylor, Tim},
  title = {On the Incorporation of a Developmental Process in a System of Self-Replicating Programs},
  institution = {Department of Artificial Intelligence, University of Edinburgh},
  year = {1996},
  type = {Departmental Working Paper},
  number = {258},
  month = jan,
  category = {techreport},
  keywords = {cosmos}
}
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